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一个危机,两种解读

芝加哥—世界发达民主国家陷入了危机,关于什么是危机的源头以及如何补救,出现了两种相互对立的声音。第一种为人所熟知的诊断是需求因为危机前积累的高债务而崩溃。最具支出倾向的家庭(以及国家)再也无法借到钱了。为了重振增长,必须鼓励其他家庭和国家来支出——仍然能够借钱的政府应该扩大赤字,同时极低的利率应该阻止节约的家庭继续储蓄。

这种观点认为,粗犷的预算是一种美德,至少在短期看是如此。从中期看,只要增长能够得到提振,债务就能活得偿付,而金融部门得到了抑制,因此不会在世界上掀起另一场危机。

这种观点是标准的凯恩斯主义,只是根据债务危机做了些许修正。该观点受到了大部分政府官员、中央银行和华尔街经济学家的支持,已无需再赘述了。其优点在于向决策者明确指出了行动方向,还给出了符合政治周期的预期回报。不幸的是,尽管已经实施了刺激措施,但增长仍然疲软,而且,从短期看,要找到给力的新支出之源越来越困难了。

于是,人们的目光开始转移到第二种观点。这种观点认为,发达经济体通过生产有用的东西获得增长的基本能力下滑已经持续了数十年之久了,其特征便是用债务来支撑支出。更多的同类支出无法给这些国家带来可持续的增长。相反,它们必须改善增长环境。

第二种观点的着眼点始于20世纪五六十年代,当时正是西方和日本的高速增长期。几大因素——包括战后重建、20世纪30年代保护主义风潮过去之后的贸易复兴、电力、运输和跨国通信方面的新技术,以及教育程度的改善——推动了长期繁荣。但是,泰勒·柯万(Tyler Cowen)在其《大停滞》(The Great Stagnation)一书中指出,这些“低处的果实”被摘取殆尽后,进入20世纪70年代以来,提振增长就变得日益困难了。

与此同时,沃尔夫冈·斯特里克(Wolfgang Streeck)在《新左翼评论》(New Left Review)中雄辩地写道,民主政府在20世纪60年代面临着看似永远光明的创新和增长前景,因此大踏步地进入了福利国家的行列。但是,当增长开始放缓时,这意味着政府支出的膨胀(尽管此时其创收资源出现了萎缩)。在一定的时间里,央行承担起了支出的重任。由此产生的高通胀引起了广泛的不满,特别是在增长不见提振的情况下。人们对凯恩斯主义刺激的信任度下降了,尽管高通胀确实降低了公债水平。

此后,央行开始将稳定的低通胀作为其首要目标,并越来越独立于行政。但政府的赤字支出并没有放慢脚步,发达国家公债水平占GDP的比例从20世纪70年代末开始稳步攀升,这一次不再有通胀来帮它们拉低债务的真实价值了。

美国从吉米·卡特任期后半段和罗纳德·里根任期内开始认识到需要寻找新的增长源,并对产业和金融部门实施了去监管化,与此同时,撒切尔夫人在英国也采取了相似的动作。多年来,这些国家的生产率有了显著提高,受此影响,欧洲大陆国家也采取了改革(大多由欧洲委员会推动)。

但由于此前政府承诺了过于慷慨的医疗和养老承诺,如此增长仍旧显得力不从心,而预期寿命的增加和出生率的下降使得政府愈加不堪重负了。公债水平继续增加。而教育程度适中的中产阶级在去监管化带来的增长中并没有获得好处(尽管作为消费者,他们获益良多)。

发达经济体疯狂寻找增长的最新阶段,各国可谓八仙过海各显神通。在有的国家(以美国为甚),私人部门的信贷繁荣为低技能行业(如建筑业)带来了大量工作岗位,而居民则通过以价值高估的房地产作抵押,借钱来维持消费繁荣。在其他国家(如希腊以及西班牙和意大利的部分地区),政府领导的招工潮为教育程度不高者提供了就业保障。

在这一“基本面”观点看来,发达国家的危机前GDP增长是不可持续的,是用借贷和非生产性冗余工作岗位堆出来的。“借”来的繁荣——即凯恩斯模式——可以造成一种常态幻觉,在深度危机袭来后可以起到平息恐慌的作用,但绝非基本增长问题的解决办法。

如果这一诊断正确,那么发达国家就需要将注意力集中于重塑中期创新和生产率增长,同时根据收入能力重新定义福利承诺,在短期则致力于减轻真正赤贫者的痛苦。比如,南欧国家的增长潜力或许在于放松服务部门的监管、减少就业保护以为丢掉工作的政府员工和失业青年创造更多的私人部门工作岗位。

在美国,当务之急是改善潜在工作岗位和工人技能之间的匹配度。个人要比政府更清楚知道他们需要什么,并据此行动。比如,大量妇女正在脱离低收入岗位,以便获得更好的技能叩开高收入职位之门。政府在这些方面的关注度远远不够,部分是因为其好处要在在任者任期结束后才会显现,也有部分是因为政府计划的效率不够高。税收改革可以刺激人们参与再培训,也可以激励人们继续工作,且不耽误填补财政窟窿。

有三大力量有助于在未来创造更多的生产性岗位:对信息和通讯技术的更好的使用(以及新的收费方式)、随着替代资源的开发而实现的低成本能源,以及新兴市场快速增长的对高附加值产品的需求。

发达国家有的选择。它们可以若无其事(尽管消费者如同惊弓之鸟,“动物精神”也需要刺激来予以提振)。它们也可以将此次危机视为修正过去数十年来产生债务的问题的契机。无论如何,政府和公众选择相信哪种观点将决定它们的未来——以及全球经济的未来。

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  1. Commented

    Roman Bleifer

    The world is changing, and varies in quality. Many of the techniques and methods in the economy, which in the past brought success in the current circumstances do not bring success. At the heart of the current economic crisis are qualitatively new system processes, the processes of transition to a new mode of production. Trillions no money had been secured are thrown in the economy, but could not solve a serious problem odnry ( http://crisismir.com/analiticheskie-materialy/ekonomika/13-mirovoj-ekonomicheskij-krizis-prichiny-i-posledstviya-quo-vadis.html ). The situation only worsened, exacerbating the problem of sovereign debt.

  2. Commented

    PROCYON MUKHERJEE

    Raghuram has been apt in pointing out the fundamental problem, while we have seen the drop in net worth from pre-crisis levels followed by increase in unemployment this was virtually reality distortion at its best. The unsustainable model of cashing out on a virtual equity to create an unsustainable demand and output that ensured much higher level of people and skills to be channelized into employment had to end one day. The realignment of this towards the right employment avenues is still waiting for policy actions that would find the right fit between America’s current skills and those that would create lasting value; he is right to point out that innovation holds the key that these upgrades must be directed to, but this needs time that current investors and markets do not have, while there is no stopping the unbalanced flow of capital into the country, from the uneven flow of labor intensive imports and capital intensive exports.

    Procyon Mukherjee

  3. Commented

    Derrick Wilkinson

    A very compelling analysis. However, I wonder if the real longer term challenge we face is to develop an economy that does not need to grow in the ways we current expect. Faced with inexorable population growth over the next 40 years, rapidly growing economic expectations across the planet, and increasingly apparent constraints in the natural environment, we in the world's industrial democracies need to ask: "How much more do we need? When do I have a sufficiency of goods and services?"" If the rest of the world - including the additional 2 to 3 billion people expected over the next 40 years - catches up to the level of consumption we now enjoy in the West, the environmental consequences could be devastating. Short to medium term, economic growth strategies based on meeting these larger demographic and environmental issues are what is needed.

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