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Dérive nationale ou maîtrise mondiale

LONDRES – Alors que les chefs de file du monde des affaires se réunissent à Davos, un changement de paradigme très en retard sur la politique monétaire se dessine lentement, en vue de subordonner l'optimisation de l'inflation à l'optimisation de la croissance.

Dans ce que certains appellent un « moment de Volcker inversé », le Président de la Réserve fédérale américaine Ben Bernanke a indiqué un objectif du taux de chômage à 6,5%, parrallèle à son objectif d'inflation. Le nouveau gouvernement du Japon a proposé un objectif d'inflation minimum. Et Mark Carney, le prochain gouverneur de la Banque d'Angleterre, a affirmé « [qu']il ne pouvait pas y avoir de situation plus favorable pour l'objectif du PIB nominal. » En outre, la Chine s'est engagée à doubler son revenu national moyen par habitant d'ici 2020.

Malheureusement il a fallu sous-estimer pendant quatre ans l'impact de l'austérité budgétaire et un déficit chronique de la demande (avec un potentiel d'approvisionnement de l'économie qui commence à diminuer en conséquence) pour nous mettre d'accord sur la ciblage d'une croissance que le G-20 avait prévue en 2009.

Alors pourquoi, alors que le changement se matérialise, y a-t-il si peu d'optimisme à propos de la croissance en ce début d'année 2013, et pourquoi entend-on autant parler d'une « décennie perdue » ? La réponse est que le problème de la basse croissance exige plus qu'un changement dans les politiques monétaires nationales : il nécessite également un accord pour coordonner la croissance mondiale, et cette solution n'a pas été trouvée.

Naturellement une part du pessimisme résulte de la faiblesse de l'Europe, qui a seulement convenu que la Banque Centrale Européenne serait le prêteur en dernier recours. Et l'autre part provient d'avoir reconnu des limites à l'assouplissement quantitatif. Nous sommes en partie victimes d'une prophétie de pessimisme qui s'auto-accomplit : la perspective d'un surendettement nous condamne au chômage et à la stagnation, et ne nous laisse rien à gagner si nous tentions d'employer la relance budgétaire ou l'innovation financière pour la contrer.

Mais je crois qu'il existe une raison plus fondamentale à l'empêchement d'une croissance plus rapide. En d'autres termes, il y a dix ans, les Etats-Unis pouvaient proposer une relance mondiale. Peut-être que dans dix ans, les dépenses de consommation de l'Asie viendront combler ce vide. Mais aujourd'hui, pour la première fois depuis des décennies, aucune économie ne peut à elle seule faire avancer l'économie mondiale.

Depuis 150 ans, jusqu'en 2010, l'Occident (les Etats-Unis et l'Europe) étaient responsables de la majorité du rendement, de l'industrie, du commerce, de l'investissement et de la consommation mondiale. Nous sommes à présent dans une ère de transition, où le reste du monde externalise la production, l'industrie, le commerce et les investissements en Europe et aux Etats-Unis, mais sans pour autant externaliser la consommation.

Ce déséquilibre signifie que les producteurs de la plupart des biens et des services sont en dehors de l'Occident, mais comptent sur les consommateurs occidentaux pour absorber leur production. Jusqu'à ce que la transition soit terminée, nous dépendons les uns des autres : personne ne peut réussir tout seul. Mais en l'absence de coordination mondiale, le monde est coincé dans une impasse et se comporte selon une déclinaison à l'échelle mondiale du « dilemme du prisonnier » : un monde dans lequel aucune économie principale ne peut réussir seule, mais dans lequel pourtant aucune économie ne fait assez confiance à aucune autre pour tenter une coopération et une coordination de ses actions.

Les objectifs de PIB nominaux représentent peut-être une avancée nécessaire, mais ils ne sont pas une réponse suffisante à une croissance mondiale lente. Même les plus audacieuses initiatives nationales peuvent échouer, non pas parce que l'optimisation de la croissance économique est une mauvaise approche, mais parce qu'il n'existe aucune manière de maintenir les niveaux plus élevés de croissance dont nous avons besoin sans une meilleure coordination globale. En l'absence d'un contexte mondial favorable, tout changement purement national touchant la politique économique (comme les objectifs en matière d'emploi) aura des avantages limités (et pourra discréditer la poursuite de plans nationaux pour l'emploi).

Donc le vide politique fondamental d'aujourd'hui, auquel il s'agit bel et bien de trouver un remède, réside dans la réticence des gouvernements nationaux à envisager un leadership mondial. Certains cyniques pourraient arguer du fait qu'il s'agit d'une prise de décision nationale dysfonctionnelle reproduite à un niveau mondial. Mais il existe une explication plus persuasive : personne ne souhaite faire face à un protectionnisme généralisé.

Naturellement le nationalisme économique ne fait aucun doute aux Etats-Unis, où la nervosité au sujet de la Chine et l'hostilité envers des accords mondiaux sont patents. Mais l'Europe connaît à son tour une vague d'opposition à l'immigration et une résistance croissante à sa volonté de venir en aide aux pays les plus pauvres.

En effet, il est plus sûr pour les politiciens de proposer le contraire d'une vision mondiale : renationaliser chaque problème économique et tous les attribuer aux erreurs de l'opposition nationale. Ainsi pendant quatre ans les déficits budgétaires, qui doivent être naturellement traités par des plans à long terme de réduction de la dette, ont pratiquement monopolisé le débat sur la politique économique en Europe et aux Etats-Unis, aux dépens de discussions constructives sur la croissance, l'emploi et le commerce.

Pour le dire sans détours, il est plus salutaire politiquement pour un politicien d'opposition de prétendre que les problèmes de son pays sont auto-infligés, causés par la dilapidation nationale, et qu'ils ont peu de rapport avec les faillites financières mondiales. Les citoyens seront excusés d'en conclure que la crise financière mondiale de 2008  n'avait rien à voir avec un effondrement mondial des opérations bancaires, et qu'elle a été entièrement provoquée par quelques gouvernements nationaux dépensiers qui ont accumulé les déficits.

En conséquence, des millions de personnes sont sans emploi inutilement et des millions d'autres font face à la diminution de leur niveau de vie. L'économie est désormais mondiale, mais la politique reste locale. Les défis mondiaux se développent, alors que les ordres du jour des sommets internationaux se resserrent, et renforcent le mythe selon lequel leurs débats sont sans objet.

Mais alors même que le sentiment protectionniste empêche la coopération, l'enjeu de la croissance mondiale attend une solution. Cela commence par le fait de reconnaître la nécessité de mobiliser les forts excédents de l'épargne et une importante capacité inutilisée, et de reconnaître aussi la demande croissante des consommateurs de la classe moyenne émergente en Asie comme la clé de l'expansion. Pourtant la Chine, dont les consommateurs peuvent parfaitement absorber des importations de l'Occident, veut rester circonspecte avant d'amplifier la demande de sa classe moyenne, car elle craint de perdre certains marchés d'exportation en Occident. Le gouvernement de l'Inde veut ouvrir son économie aux importations vers l'Occident, mais le reste du monde ne prend pas en compte ses craintes de surexposition à l'instabilité mondiale.

Seule une réponse politique coordonnée, englobant toutes les économies du G-20, peut briser ce cycle vicieux de confiance faible et du ralentissement de la croissance commerciale. Si la Chine pouvait être assurée que ses marchés d'exportation ne faibliront pas, elle pourrait augmenter une demande nationale du consommateur et acheter des marchandises en Occident. De même, si les Etats-Unis étaient assurés de pouvoir vendre en Asie, la confiance des consommateurs occidentaux se renforcerait.

Il y a trois ans, le Fonds Monétaire International a montré qu'en coordonnant l'expansion de la demande de l'Asie et de l'investissement dans l' infrastructure en Occident, nous pouvions mobiliser des fonds privés pour de grands projets de partenariat entre secteur privé et secteur public. La production mondiale augmenterait de 3%, l'emploi augmenterait de 25 à 30 millions d'euros et 100 millions de personnes échapperaient à la pauvreté.

La coordination économique mondiale n'est plus un luxe. La raillerie de Winston Churchill à propos de la politique des années 1930 peut aussi s'appliquer à nous. Les gouvernements, disait alors Churchill, ont été « résolus à ne rien résoudre, ont mis toute leur énergie à se laisser dériver, ont fait tous les efforts pour être malléables, ont été tout-puissants à se montrer impuissants. » En 2013, c'est à cette irrésolution, à cette dérive et à l'impuissance qui en découle que nous devons à notre tour faire face.

Traduit de l’anglais par Stéphan Garnier.

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  1. Commented

    Kathy Holland

    Actually, Gordon, I see the debt overhang as one of the areas of growth potential. If done properly we can bring unemployment under control and experience financial discoveries in the process. Is there any other way to do this without fiscal expansion? I mean really how does one drive a vehicle with a V12 engine but only 6 are working?

    Targeting and coordinating growth cooperatively are promising steps towards our global vision.

    Excellent article.

  2. Commented

    John Nugée

    With the rise of the emerging market economies, the world is a less homogenous place than it was, with no one dominant ideology (China’s version of capitalism – run by the state for the state – is materially different and leads to a significantly different policy mix), and a less ordered and consensual place, because more countries have the economic might to expect that their concerns over how the global economy is run will be given due consideration. This leads to more variety in policy responses, and less uniformity and adherence to a standard orthodoxy, and results in the more complex world financial system we now have.

    One consequence of Asia’s emergence is the large increase in reserves as a percentage of world GDP and world trade. Both of these numbers tell the same story, which is of a world that now operates with more cash per unit of activity. In economic terms, that signifies a reduction in financial efficiency – if money is the fuel that drives economic activity, then the world economy now requires more fuel per unit of output.

    This should not be a great surprise, because over the last 20 years the world has moved from a position where global economic activity was dominated by developed (and so presumed efficient) economies, to one where more than 50% of world GDP is now generated by developing (and so presumed less efficient) ones. We know that the Chinese economy is energy-inefficient (literally: it uses much more oil or oil-equivalent to generate a dollar of GDP than the US does), and it is not a great surprise that it is also finance-inefficient.

    Given that we don’t expect any of these trends to change – China is not about to become a smaller part of world GDP and it is not going to become a much more efficient economy overnight – the bigger question is what this means for the global economy going forward. I would suggest there are two main consequences: a global financial system with excess liquidity washing around it will be more difficult to control, and a global economy in which increasingly large parts of it are not subject to the automatic stabilisers of market economics (ie, the Chinese authorities can set their face for longer against market-driven corrections of imbalances) will be subject to larger excesses and sharper reversals. Not a very encouraging outlook.

  3. Commented

    Robert Pringle

    As the comments show, Gordon, your article has struck a chord with many observers. But there is a big lacuna in your argument.

    What is missing is something to convince governments, the business community and electorates that the results of a big global stimulus will actually be beneficial, in terms of sustainable growth and employment. Won’t they also splutter out, leaving heightened concern about inflation and even more debt and little real growth?

    Without complementary action, such a Keynesian package could also trigger heightened exchange rate conflicts, as new monetary surges destabilise emerging markets in the search for yield and spark new cross-border currency and asset bubbles.

    The remedy is to strengthen the international monetary system so that it can contain the forces that such a boost would unleash, as explained in www.themoneytrap.com.

  4. Commented

    Carol Maczinsky

    So let's get back to proper regulation and economical governance and sent canon boats to offshore islands and other parasites of the international order.

  5. Commented

    Timothy Williamson

    Here's the problem, we're too focussed on minutia. To move forward, to lift up all our peoples, in a hyper-connected world where our interactions with others are accelerating across and beyond traditional borders, then a big vision is needed. See my presentation called, Human complexity-Creating sustainable local growth at

    http://bit.ly/XS6M8C

  6. Commented

    jracforr jracforr

    Free unrestricted trade which allow nations to create vast trade imbalance is a thing of the past. This is not economic nationalism it is called common sense.Just as we set loss limits in trading on the stock market,so should they be applied to international trade. The US is bankrupt by free trade and China will not expand consumption unless it is guaranteed unlimited access to the US already bankrupt economy !!?? really. Is it any wonder India is skeptical of the present economic system.

  7. Commented

    Robert Wolff

    Gordon only missed one point - that for inert money to invest itself in growth requires the prospect of profit with reasonable risk - and the only place that exists is Asia.

    How will the West encourage trillions of dollars on the sidelines to invest in Western growth? Western governments can no longer afford to subsidize profits in the West. The US experienced 2% growth in 2012 with a profit rate of 12% - which means that 10% of corporate profit was subsidized by US Government and US consumer debt. The accumulated debt prohibits further government subsidization of profits.

    Is Prime Minister Gordon suggesting something other than capitalist profit maximization as the cure for world financial ills?

  8. Commented

    pingfan hong

    You can target growth, but what is more importantly is whether you can attain the target through the policy instruments at your disposal.

  9. Commented

    Anthony Botsman

    No to any form of global coordination , a contradiction in terms and part of a typical wish list from governments ignoring the need for competitiveness.

    When we see accountability and transparency within the last/only unmeasured 'sector' , ie Government, then and only then will we see a return to healthy, equitable growth.

    Capital and talent will flow to progressively managed economies such as Latvia who 'bit the bullet' and reduced their public servants (but not service) by 30%; others must follow and governments in general accept the need for a 'source and application' transparency as part of their accounting and accountability.
    Tony Botsman

    1. Commented

      Timothy Williamson

      Anthony, there is a way. Actually, it's absolutely imperative that we utilize the connections growing globally regardless of state. Those days are over. Here's the problem, we're too focussed on minutia. To move forward, to lift up all our peoples, in a hyper-connected world where our interactions with others are accelerating across and beyond traditional borders, then a big vision is needed. See my presentation called, Human complexity-Creating sustainable local growth at http://bit.ly/XS6M8C

  10. Commented

    Frank O'Callaghan

    The great change wrought in parallel with globalization was greater inequality. This must be reversed. The poor have paid for the crisis.

  11. Commented

    J St. Clair

    "Asian demand and investment in Western infrastructure"....for income?....."Global output would rise 3%, employment would grow by 25-30 million, and 100 million people would escape poverty"...this is ambiguous...where and which povertied people are we talking about...

  12. Commented

    Paul Langford

    Actually if you're a country/company supplying what (say) Chinese and Indian consumers want, growth isn't really an issue (I don't think the board of Volkswagen will be too worried for example).

    The UK of course has long focussed on more established markets. According to an IMF report, income inequality has driven middle/working class indebtedness (and the woeful current account balance). Structural change isn't easy or quick (BoE report), and consumers and government are going to be deleveraging for years (in part because of off balance sheet PFI commitments, though that of course isn't the whole story).

    In short, this article seems more like an appeal for others to grow enough so we can grab onto their coat tails. In the meantime we need to make sensible adjustments (not the short sharp burst of "austerity" kind, though debt will have to decrease) but I suspect also the outlook doesn't look pretty in the UK for quite some time. (That's not to contradict Timothy's message for which perhaps "decarbonisation" in some form could be a grand project - but don't look to the current UK govt to put up any money!)

  13. Commented

    Timothy Williamson

    I've been saying this for some time: our focus has been in the wrong direction - it needs to be forward looking, big, awe-inspiring. see my presentation at.... Here's my newest presentation called "Human Complexity - Creating Sustainable Local Growth" at http://bit.ly/XS6M8C

  14. Commented

    donna jorgo

    FIRST . i HAVE TO SAY MY RESPECT ..you safe UK (sterlin)from desaster ..
    iam agree in total accapt the last economy will go in luxery ..
    because if we have to remande the global popularity will grow very soon 9b
    and THE IDEOLOGY KENYSE starte to trasist the economy in NOT policy monetary but spend for take back
    Europe is not the only continent have emigrant problem (so this is not exuse)
    'antanagonismo' was and will continue to be strong (because all wanted to survive)
    THANK YOU (sorry for not perfect eng)

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