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不受欢迎的美元本位

帕罗奥图—二战结束以来,美元一直是全球贸易的记账货币、银行间国际收支的清算媒介,也是最主要的正式外汇储备货币。这一安排经常受到批判,但存在可行的替代方案吗?

二战结束后,欧洲陷入了萧条和通胀,其问题在于缺少外汇储备,而这意味着贸易存在巨大的机会成本。为了在不要求每笔交易都实现资金收付的情况下促进贸易,欧洲经济合作组织在1950年成立了欧洲支付同盟(EPU)。EPU受美元计价信用支持,其15个西欧成员国建立了精确的美元汇率平价,以此作为锚定国内价格水平和消除一切欧洲内部贸易货币障碍的基础。这便是获得巨大成功的欧洲复兴计划(即马歇尔计划,美国帮助欧洲国家重振经济)的基石。

如今,除了少数东亚国家之外,大部分发展中国家仍然选择将本国宏观经济安排之锚设定为(至少是间歇性地)稳定对美元汇率。

但美元作为国际锚的作用正在减弱,因为其他新兴市场国家越来越不满足于美联储的近零利率政策——这导致“热”资本从美国涌入。这反过来助长了剧烈的汇率升值和国际竞争力损失——除非受影响国家的央行出手干预买入美元。

事实上,自2003年末美联储首次将利率削减至1%从而引发美国房地产泡沫以来,新兴市场的美元储备增加了六倍,2011年达到了7万亿美元。由此带来的新兴市场基础货币的增加导致这些国家通胀远高于美国,也导致了全球商品价格泡沫,特别是石油和粮食。

但美国也对美元本位的运转情况不满。其他国家可以实施干预以稳定本币对世界主要储备货币的汇率,但美国为了保持与利率设定的一致性,不能出手干预,也缺少自身的汇率政策。

此外,美国反对其他国家的汇率政策。二十年前,美国向日本施压,要求后者允许日元对美元升值,声称日本不公平的汇率政策是美国双边贸易赤字激增的原因。类似地,如今的“中国冲击”论——随着美国贸易赤字的中国因素日益增加,这一论调也甚嚣尘上——也试图迫使中国当局加快人民币升值步伐。

这里存在一个大悖论。尽管没人喜欢美元本位,但政府和私人市场参与者仍认为这是最佳选择。

事实上,美国贸易赤字的根本原因是储蓄不足,主要是政府储蓄不足,而不是经济学家诱导决策者所认为的汇率不一致。里根总统任期内美国的巨大预算赤字造成了20世纪80年代著名的财政和贸易双赤字。这,而不是被低估的日元,才是导致对日双边赤字在20世纪八九十年代扩大的原因。

进入新千年,小布什和奥巴马任期中的美国财政赤字要大得多,这预示着大规模——不确定会有多少——贸易赤字。但美国决策者仍在谴责中国,声称人民币被低估了十年。

认为汇率升值会减少一国贸易盈余的观点是错误的,因为在全球一体化的经济中,国内投资会随汇率的升值而下降。因此,对中国冲击厌恶是毫无根据的。更糟糕的是,这导致政治关注点从美国的巨额财政赤字——2012年高达1.2万亿美元(或GDP的7.7%)——上移开,从而妨碍了限制未来开支和福利(如医保和养老金)的措施。

有人认为大额财政赤字无关紧要,只要美国能充分利用其在美元本位下的核心地位——也就是说,只要它能通过向外国央行以近零利率兜售国债为赤字融资。但美国对高度工业化国家(特别是亚洲)的持续贸易赤字正在导致美国去工业化加速,同时为美国保护主义者制造着借口。

事实上,美国制造业贸易赤字大约与其经常项目赤字(国内投资高于国内储蓄的值)相当。因此,担心美国制造业岗位流失者应该鼓吹降大大降低财政赤字才对。

美国巨额财政赤字和近零利率能振兴国内经济增长和就业创造,因而打有必要,这种观点正确吗?从2007—2008信贷动荡后的五年来看,答案是否定的。此外,即使没有这一观点的论证,对美元本位的最新批判也会走得更远,并刺激对“新”安排的探索。

但最佳新安排——或许也是唯一可行的新安排——将跟在旧模式后亦步亦趋:正如20世纪五六十年代,美国将把利率设定在略正的稳定水平,以充足的国内储蓄催生(小规模)贸易盈余。目前已是世界出口冠军兼美国最大债权人的中国的合作对于这一涅槃过程的加速和刺激是至关重要的。撇开尚在发酵的欧元危机,稳定的人民币/美元汇率是亚洲和拉美的新(美元)汇率稳定的关键——一如1944年布雷顿森林协定的设想。

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  1. Commented

    Chee-Heong Quah

    Now I understand.

    In sum, government intervention disrupts the mechanics of the natural price mechanism in the interbank market. The act of Federal Reserves bidding up prices of bills and bonds, pushed down the short-term interest rates which do not represent the natural price of capital that would have been without Fed's intervention.

    Since the Fed set the minimum price, banks and lenders find it not profitable to lend at the new low price. But what about the "black market"? Can market prices prevail in the "black market"?

  2. Commented

    John Monroe

    This argument loses all credibility the second it hones in on entitlement spending, rather than spending, as a root problem. How is it defense spending eludes Dr. Mckinnon's radar? -- one detects ideology intruding on thought. At least there are obvious returns for not permitting a flood of money into luxury spending (healthcare) to beggar the lower and middle classes -- at least, if one concedes that nothing will be done to rein in costs. There may be returns on defense spending but no one seems eager to mention them in public.

    Incidentally, it is not necessary to conclude from "China's exchange rate policy is not to blame for our trade deficit" that China's currency is therefore not undervalued. It is undervalued. It has been for the last fifteen years, at least. And yet it is not responsible for our trade deficit.

  3. Commented

    Carol Maczinsky

    I think sinophilism and sinophobia are equally wrong. We know that the Chinese economy is on shaky grounds.

  4. Commented

    Mark Pitts

    The author is quite correct in pointing out that excessively low rates engineered by the Fed was a significant reason for the housing bubble. Then, as now, low rates lead investors into riskier assets, and lead even low-income borrows to believe they can come out ahead by betting on housing.
    A recent study from the Erasmus Institute also shows how excessive world saving fed into the mix.
    A greedy population that didn’t want to miss out on a “sure thing” is also to blame. Shiller explains this effect in housing and the stock market in his excellent book.
    Of course, many unthinking people want to blame the banks. However, they have yet to explain how banks could have anticipated the problem when international agencies such as the IMF could not, and the even Fed mere days before the crisis saw no problem in housing.

    1. Commented

      Jose araujo

      How many time do the Austrians have to be proven wrong for people to stop using the same arguments.

      Look at the situation right now, if low interest rates had anything to do with housing bubles wouldn't we be living in this situations right now?

      Deregulation and the spread of securization has much more to do with the housing bubbles then low interest rates. The problem wasn't the cost of risk, the problem was the wrong perception and valuation of the risk

  5. Commented

    Jose araujo

    Wouldn't it be much easier if you inverted the causal nexus.

    Its the over appreciation of a currency that causes fiscal deficits and not the opposite. We all know it, its empirical verifiable and it makes sense.

    We actually have evidence in many countries that its the fixed exchange rates that require a country to have huge fiscal deficits.

  6. Commented

    Jose araujo

    Is McKinnon proposing a new economic theory, or has he just gone mad?

    "Fed first cut interest rates to 1%, triggering the US housing bubble,..." so it was the Fed that triggered the house bubble!!!!

    "...dollar reserves in emerging markets have increased six-fold, reaching $7 trillion by 2011" now cutting interest rates leads to capital inflow, another amazing statement

    "..trade deficits are primarily the result of insufficient, mainly government, saving – not a misaligned exchange rate,..." trade deficits are now the consequence of public deficits!!!! Amazing theory..

    "Large US budget deficits during Ronald Reagan’s presidency generated the famous twin fiscal and trade deficits of the 1980’s. This, not an undervalued yen, caused the bilateral deficit with Japan to widen in the 1980’s and 1990’s." Clearly that was what caused the deficits..


    "The claim that exchange-rate appreciation will reduce a country’s trade surplus is false, because, in globally integrated economies, domestic investment falls when the exchange rate appreciates." Yes, yes, I start to understand now, up is down and down is up for Professor McKinnon


    "Indeed, America’s trade deficit in manufactures is roughly equal to its current-account deficit (the amount by which domestic investment exceeds domestic saving)" last time I checked that is the definition of the capital account, and yes capital account is the mirror of the current account, but not for Mckinnon...

    "Can large US fiscal deficits and near-zero interest rates be justified because they help to revive domestic economic growth and job creation? Five years after the credit crunch of 2007-2008, it seems that they cannot" Yes yes, for sure reducing spending and increasing interest rates is the answer to our problems...

    This must be an article from the wrong McKinnon, we must be in the presence of the GREAT Magician McKinnon, that can solve the competitive problems of the economy with his magic wand, generating trade surplus while appreciating the dollar, and growing the economy while cutting the defict

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