LONDRES – En la actualidad Europa se encuentra perseguida por el fantasma de la deuda. Todos los líderes europeos se sienten abatidos ante esta situación. Para exorcizar a este demonio, están sometiendo a sus economías a padecimientos.
Parece que dichos padecimientos no son de ayuda. Sus economías siguen desplomándose dando tumbos, y la deuda sigue creciendo. La agencia de calificación crediticia Standard & Poors ha rebajado las calificaciones de la deuda soberana de nueve países de la eurozona, entre ellos la de Francia. Probablemente el Reino Unido sea el siguiente.
Para cualquiera que no esté cegado por la locura, la explicación de esta rebaja es evidente. Si el objetivo, establecido deliberadamente, es la reducción del tamaño del PIB, la relación de deuda con respecto al PIB está destinada a crecer. La única manera de reducir la deuda de un país (que no sea mediante una moratoria) es conseguir que su economía crezca.
El miedo a estar endeudado está arraigado en la naturaleza humana, por lo que, para el ciudadano promedio aparenta estar correcto el que la extinción de la deuda sea uno de los objetivos de las políticas de un país. Todos saben lo que significa contraer una deuda financiera: dinero adeudado, a menudo como resultado de préstamos. Estar endeudado puede producir ansiedad si uno no está seguro sobre si, llegado el momento, será capaz de pagar lo que debe.
Esta ansiedad se transmite fácilmente a la deuda nacional – la deuda contraída por un gobierno con sus acreedores. Las personas se preguntan: ¿cómo reembolsarán los gobiernos la totalidad de los cientos de miles de millones de dólares que deben? Como señaló el primer ministro británico David Cameron: “La deuda pública es similar a la deuda de tarjetas de crédito, tiene que ser pagada”.
Se llega al siguiente paso con facilidad: a fin de pagar, o al menos reducir, la deuda nacional, el gobierno debe eliminar su déficit presupuestario, ya que el exceso de gasto con relación a los ingresos se agrega a la deuda nacional. En efecto, si el gobierno no actúa, la deuda nacional se convertirá en lo que en el léxico actual se define como “insostenible”.
Una vez más, de manera fácil surge una analogía con el endeudamiento de los hogares. El ciudadano sensato razona y piensa que “mi muerte no extingue mi deuda”. Mis acreedores tendrán prelación de cobro sobre mi herencia – es decir, preferencia sobre todo lo que yo quería dejar como herencia a mis hijos. Del mismo modo, cuando un gobierno deja sin pagar una deuda por demasiado tiempo se convierte en una carga para las generaciones futuras: yo podré disfrutar de los beneficios de las extravagancias del gobierno, pero mis hijos tendrán que pagar la factura.
Es por eso que en la actualidad la reducción del déficit está en el centro de la política fiscal de la mayoría de los gobiernos. Supuestamente hay menos probabilidades de que la deuda de un gobierno con un plan “creíble” de “consolidación fiscal” ingrese en moratoria o se la deje para que sea pagada por las generaciones futuras. Se cree que tal reducción del déficit permitirá que el gobierno pida prestado dinero con costos menores de los que pudiera de otra forma conseguir, esto, consecuentemente, reduce las tasas de interés para los prestatarios privados, lo que a su vez debe impulsar la actividad económica. De esta forma se llega a la conclusión que la consolidación fiscal es el gran y soberbio camino a la recuperación económica.
Esta doctrina, que es la doctrina oficial de los países más desarrollados en la actualidad, contiene al menos cinco falacias importantes, que pasan desapercibidas debido a que la narrativa es muy plausible.
En primer lugar, los gobiernos, a diferencia de los particulares, no tienen que “pagar” sus deudas. El gobierno de un país con su propio banco central y su propia moneda, simplemente puede seguir endeudándose mediante la impresión de dinero que luego se le es prestado. Este no es el caso de los países de la eurozona. Sin embargo, los gobiernos de la eurozona tampoco tienen que pagar sus deudas. Si sus acreedores (extranjeros) ejercen demasiada presión sobre ellos, ellos simplemente ingresan en moratoria. La moratoria es mala. Pero la vida tras la moratoria continúa transcurriendo de manera muy similar a la de antes de dicha moratoria.
En segundo lugar, reducir deliberadamente el déficit no es el mejor camino para que un gobierno equilibre sus libros de contabilidad. La reducción del déficit en una economía deprimida no es el camino a la recuperación, es el camino a la contracción, ya que significa reducir la renta nacional de la cual dependen los ingresos del gobierno. Esto hará que para un gobierno sea más difícil, no más fácil, reducir el déficit. El gobierno británico ya debe pedir prestado £112 mil millones ($172 mil millones de dólares) más de lo que había planeado cuando anunció su plan de reducción del déficit en junio del año 2010.
En tercer lugar, la deuda nacional no es una carga neta de las generaciones futuras. Incluso si dicha deuda da lugar a futuros pasivos fiscales (y alguna de la deuda si dará lugar a ello), estos pasivos serán transferencias de los contribuyentes a los tenedores de bonos. Esto puede tener desagradables consecuencias distributivas. Sin embargo, tratar de reducir la deuda ahora será una carga neta sobre las generaciones futuras: la renta del país se reducirá de inmediato, las ganancias caerán, los fondos de pensiones se reducirán, los proyectos de inversión serán cancelados o pospuestos, y no se construirán casas, hospitales y escuelas. Las generaciones futuras estarán peor que antes, después de haberse visto privadas de los bienes que de lo contrario podrían haber tenido.
En cuarto lugar, no hay ninguna conexión entre el tamaño de la deuda nacional y el precio que el gobierno debe pagar para financiarla. Las tasas de interés que el Japón, los Estados Unidos, el Reino Unido y Alemania pagan por sus deudas nacionales son similarmente bajas, a pesar de que existen grandes diferencias en las políticas fiscales y niveles de endeudamiento de dichos países.
Por último, los bajos costos de los préstamos para los gobiernos no reducen automáticamente el costo del capital para el sector privado. Después de todo, los prestatarios empresariales, por ejemplo, no se prestan a la tasa de rendimiento “sin riesgo” que se paga por los bonos del Tesoro de EE.UU., y la evidencia muestra que la expansión monetaria puede empujar hacia abajo la tasa de interés de la deuda pública, pero que casi no tienen efecto sobre nuevos préstamos bancarios para empresas o hogares. De hecho, la causalidad se da a la inversa: las tasas de interés del gobierno en el Reino Unido y en otros lugares son tan bajas debido a que las tasas de interés para los préstamos al sector privado son tan altas.
Al igual que lo que pasó con “el fantasma del comunismo” que persiguió a Europa en el famoso manifiesto de Carlos Marx, hoy en día “todos los poderes de la vieja Europa se han unido en una santa alianza para exorcizar” al fantasma de la deuda nacional. Pero los estadistas que tienen como objetivo liquidar la deuda deben recordar a otro fantasma famoso – ese fantasma es el fantasma de la revolución.


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MATTHEW MITOLA
Most of the comments herein are more worthy than the article. Particularly, debt just used to finance current non investment consumption is problematic. If debt is indeed incurred to finance investment, infrastructure, emerging technologies and related job training etc then it ultimately has a return or stimulative effect on growth, which correspondingly reduces the debt position. The problem is in most "advanced" societies, they have lost the sense of what to invest in. And the entanglement with too powerful of bankers and Wall Street is blinding them to see this reality.
Nick Marshall
This is getting the cart before the horse. Who are these future generations and what is their population? It is just too glib to assume that we know the size and wherewithal of any future generation to assume anything about the wealth or output in the future. Economic forecasts are never more than a projection of the present trend i.e.they tell you what has happened but nothing about the future.
Adding further debt now (money creation from thin air) is not actually doing anything for the economy because the multiplier effect is not happening. It is not happening because banks are reluctant to lend and people are reluctant to borrow. Economists regard this as irrational because they look at the world in terms of numbers. Real people have limited lifespans and families to take care of. People are far more sensible than the so called experts. They will take their lumps now and probably revolt later to take their revenge on those who allowed such economic distortions to happen. The final sentence "Future generations will be worse off, having been deprived of assets that they might otherwise have had." is about as stupid an idea as I can imagine. Essentially, it is saying that experts like Robert Skidelsky know the future. There was hardly an economist alive who predicted the downturn from late October 2007. Common sense tells me that in the end, despite government/central bank manipulations, there will be defaults on an unprecedented scale. In such a deflationary period only those who have paid off all debt will be in a position to flourish - hence the common sense of the common people to reject taking on more debt.
Nick Marshall
The global economy has been falsely supercharged over the last decade or two by rampant credit/money creation. In the mid sixties every dollar created added a dollar to GDP but today it takes five or more times as many to add each dollar of improvement. The reason is pretty simple - each new dollar has less purchasing power than the previous one. Economists and those highly paid people who run corporations may not notice this but ordinary people do. The whole system needs re-calibrating and the only way to do that is by honest accounting which will, of course, result in a very high level of default. Default is not bad, it is what happens in a well functioning system, because it clears out the financial arteries and passes assets from debt laden weak hands to strong hands which can nurture and grow the asset. The nineteenth century saw several crashes and bank runs of short duration. None were a risk to the system as a whole because no bank or business was "too big to fail". That is not the situation now, which is all the more reason to let those businesses fail which are supposedly crucial to the system. If they are so crucial, how come they got us into this global mess? The longer it goes on with the taxpayer's burden being increased with bailouts and quantitive easing, the greater and more damaging the eventual crash. I do not pretend that it will be bloody awful for a while but better to take our lumps now than later.
The idea that "governments, unlike private individuals, do not have to "repay" their debts" is so stupid and dishonest that it could only be uttered by an economist. It is an exercise in semantics. It may be true that the government, per se, can avoid its obligations by printing but that is only to pass on the burden of the obligation to the citizens of that country and their descendants by way of falling purchasing power and utterley distorted market signals. The only true thing that can be said is that those in government, the zombies who are supposed to represent the interests of the people, now only serve their own ends. There will, no doubt, be a period of reckoning.
parthasarathy Shakkottai
The household net worth of USA is $58.5 Trillion. The national debt is $14 T. GDP is about the same, $14T/yr.The ratio of GDP/yr to govt spending/yr has been about 5 over the years. The same ratio holds for household net worth to national debt.
"The currency issuer is the monopoly producer of money and, just as every asset has a liability, also results in government liabilities. The issuer's liabilities, or "debt", is a digital account of the currency supply used by the currency users. To a fiat currency issuer, the currency supply is a digital accounting tool, not an asset in and of itself. The currency supply is simply the bookkeeping records corresponding to all the currency users’ savings in banknotes, deposits, and treasuries.
Money functions as both a store of value and a medium of exchange. When users acquire dollars they can spend them for items in the marketplace or choose to "save" them as banknotes, deposits, and treasuries.
The more users choose to save the more "debt" the issuer takes on. A common misconception is that currency issuers "borrow" money. The issuer does not borrow because it is the monopoly producer of the currency - the money that currency users spend or save. This is simply double entry accounting.
Savings by currency users, domestic or foreign, is a straightforward concept on an individual level but becomes counter intuitive on a macro level." from
http://dollarmonopoly.blogspot.com/p/issuer-user-paradigm.html”
PROCYON MUKHERJEE
The price mark-up over unit labor cost, a measure of business power, has been rising sharply in recent times (Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis, National Income and Product Accounts; Bureau of Labor Statistics, Productivity and Costs; CEA calculations); I do not know if even a fraction of this could be invested to increase the marginal productivity of labor and its proceeds shared in a proportion that could lead to consumption increment.
We all know that the marginal propensity to consume is higher at the base and that is where the debt burden pinches severely.
Procyon Mukherjee
Paul A. Myers
The distribution of the proceeds of national debt matters a lot. Debt used to finance infrastructure and social investment in education and research (1) moves today's economy towards full employment, (2) increases the future income of the country, and (3) increases the long-run marginal productivity of labor, thus raising real wages over time.
In contrast, debt used to finance current consumption only achieves the first of the above three objectives: current employment is improved.
So public debt that builds public assets is actually a prerequisite of achieving advanced economic status. Private sector economics, no matter how "free," will not take you there.
Most of the advanced economies are under-investing in public assets and productivity-building infrastructure. So their productivity of labor is stagnating at a time when emerging market economies, incorporating the latest technology, and rapidly improving their productivity.
So the emerging countries start to "eat the lunches" of the advanced economies.
And politicians do not want to give up on public consumption regardless of impact on long-term income. So we get slower growth and higher unemployment and a sense of a stagnating future.
Duncan Hume
Of course debt matters! The casual approach to debt evidenced in this article is exactly why we have a problem. Any entity that borrows money to meet its ongoing expenses is creating an untenable situation. We now have many countries that are meeting day to day expenses using borrowed money. It may be the easiest path for those elected to positions of responsibility but it is not responsible governance. Debt works when it is being used for investment with a reasonable expectation of a return but that is not what has been happening, and assuming that the problem is going to be fixed by devaluing the currency is a joke, how is that going to affect your constituents? and eventually the lenders will wake up and then interest rates will be set to match your cavalier attitude.
parthasarathy Shakkottai
This applies to a monetarily sovereign economy, say USA. Government creates money and the economy uses it. http://pshakkottai.wordpress.com/2011/11/23/how-the-economy-works-a-diagram/
a) Federal Deficits – Net Imports = Net Private Savings is strictly true. Govt “debt” is the sum of all deficits and appears on one side of the equation whereas the private sector “debt” means negative savings. Govt deficit is the source of money.
Income taxes play a minor role in macroeconomics. It has a role in income inequality and inflation control. Govt "debt" is the same as private wealth. These are in the form of the govt bonds held by citizens, grandmothers, pension funds and so on. The interest also flows into the private sector. Two key equations in economics which apply to any system of govt which creates its own money:
A numerical proof of (a) is shown in figure 4 of http://pragcap.com/resources/understanding-modern-monetary-system
b) Gross Domestic Product = Federal Spending + Private Investment + Private Consumption + Net exports.
The GDP is equal to approximately 5 times govt spending.
Actual data is in
http://pshakkottai.wordpress.com/2011/10/16/
Deficits have been quite common in the US economy.
http://www.davemanuel.com/charts2/surpluses_and_deficits_1940-2011.html
Derrick Wilkinson
If he thinks the printing press can be used to repay debt he has clearly not understood the fact that money is not merely a means of exchange but also - and equally important - it is a store of value. Printing money is one of the quickest ways of devaluing a currency - by undermining the confidence of savers and investors in that government
Derrick Wilkinson
So debt is not a burden on future generations and does not need to be repaid. Perhaps then the government could just assume all private debts as well, since the resulting higher government debts are neither a burden nor need repayment. Arrant nonsense!!!
parthasarathy Shakkottai
That is what modern monetary theory says and MMT is true because a lot of data agrees with it.
Helena Hessel
Indeed it does. Investors' memory is surprisingly short. Argentina is an excellent example.
PROCYON MUKHERJEE
Debt to GDP ratio is passe, what now counts is the ratio of government debt to government revenue, which has been mounting and this is a clear indicator that we are drawing from the future without a credible plan on how to bring some semblance of balance. Austerity actually is a double whammy, but if it is directed towards bringing a balance in those areas where restructuring is necessary, it is actually a step in the right direction. Procyon Mukherjee
parthasarathy Shakkottai
Myths about debt/GDP still persist. Please see
http://rodgermmitchell.wordpress.com/2009/11/08/federal-debtgdp-a-useless-ratio/
and
http://www.forbes.com/2011/03/18/deficit-cut-danger-budget-jobs-leadership-managing-employment.html
Luke Ho-Hyung Lee
Could I suggest you see this letter? "An Open Letter to the Economic Leaders of the West -- especially the United States" http://goo.gl/MfLe8
I wrote this letter about a year ago on December 21, 2010, but I think it is still effective.