伦敦—美国总统奥巴马已宣誓要为美国前驻利比亚大使克里斯托弗·史蒂文斯之被杀报仇。这个仇应该如何报还不得而知,历史先例在这方面没什么指导意义。
1864年,阿比西尼亚皇帝在当时的首都抹大拉(Magdala)绑架了英国领事和几位传教士。三年后,皇帝西奥多(Tewodros)仍拒绝放人,结果英国派遣了一支13 000作战人员、26 000后勤人员和44头大象的远征军。
在《青尼罗河》(The Blue Nile)一书中,莫尔赫(Alan Moorehead)写道,远征军于是“先参加了壮行仪式和免不了的维多利亚时期国宴,与冗长的讲话先斗了一场。”然而这是一次可怕的远征。在山区行进了三个月后,英国人才到达抹大拉,解救了人质,将阿比西尼亚首都焚为焦土。西奥多皇帝自杀,英国人撤军,指挥官、陆军中将罗伯特·纳皮尔(Robert Napier)爵士被称为抹大拉的纳皮尔男爵。
当今超级大国走的也是类似的路子,针对孱弱的反对者,超级大国口气强硬,但最后结果总是不能令人信服。20世纪60年代,美国在越南用兵50万人,但在1975年撤军后,北越还是占领了南越。1987年,俄罗斯向阿富汗派遣了10万大军,结果在九年的战争后仍不能让阿富汗屈服。
25年后的今天,在花掉5 000亿美元后,大约10万北约部队——主要是美军——也要离开阿富汗了,而塔利班仍然控制着这个国家的大部。与此同时,美国还从伊拉克撤出了15万军队,此前也是经历令人沮丧的九年。
历史经验明白无误地表明,大国可能输掉小战争。然则如果大规模动武无效,出于利益和道德责任而不得不出手干预小国事务的大国如何才能胜利完成任务呢?
庞德科沃(Gillo Pontecorvo)1966年的经典电影《阿尔及尔之战》(The Battle of Algiers)道出了殖民势力面临的两难。FLN(国民解放阵线)反抗法国统治的起义爆发于1954年,以刺杀警察为开端。一开始,法国人以正统手段应对——增加警力、宵禁、戒严令等——但在双方暴行不断的刺激下,动乱还是蔓延了开去。
1957年,法国派遣了伞兵部队。影片中的指挥官马蒂厄上校(Mathieu,原型是马苏(Jacques Massu)将军)解释了法国看待当时情况的逻辑。打击起义军并不是要用“无用”的镇压手段站在人民的对立面;而是击溃FLN的指挥结构,让他们成为失去首脑的群氓。
这就要求用严刑拷打套出FLN头目的下落,并继之以抓捕和刺杀。严刑拷打的非法的,上校解释说,“如果你不想法国人离开,你就必须接受这个结果。”
马蒂厄上校是当前反起义正统方式的无名英雄:将针对目标国家的出兵规模降至最低,派遣人员主要是情报机构(如中央情报局)和“特别部队”人员。通过“引渡”,被抓获的嫌疑人可以转送至友邦政府进行拷问,再根据获得情报完善“刺杀名单”。
去年清除本·拉登的行动要求派遣一支实体攻击小队确认是否成功,但通常暗杀行动可以由无人飞机来完成——无人飞机通常用于监控,但也可以安装计算机导航导弹。毫不奇怪,美国是无非人际的领先开发者和使用者,拥有一支7 500架规模的无人飞机队伍。据估计,无人飞机暗杀已经进行了3 000次,大部分在巴基斯坦使用,在也门和索马里也有少量使用。
反起义战略的另一半是赢得极易受到恐怖主义宣传蛊惑的“民心”。在越南,美国人通过分发消费品和建设基础设施达到这一目的。他们在伊拉克和阿富汗也如法炮制。现在的看法是,不出现重装外来军队可以使“国家建设”的民用方面更易取得进展。
争取民心显然较轰炸和射杀本地居民而言是一大进步。但进行“不对称战争”的新方法却引起了令人不安的伦理和法律问题。联合国酷刑问题公约(The United Nations Convention on Torture)明文禁止“残忍、非人道和有失体面的对待和惩罚”,因此这是必须否认的。用无人飞机进行暗杀免不了会导致无辜平民死亡,而这正是恐怖主义的定义。
即使将道德和法律问题放在一边——当然我们绝不能这样做——严刑拷打和暗杀策略是否能够达成平息叛乱的目的也值得怀疑。这会重演马苏1957年犯下的错误——他认为他面临着由同一个指挥结构发号施令的组织。他抵达阿尔及尔后,重新建立了相对平静,但不久起义死灰复燃,而且声势更加壮大,马苏也不得不于1962年离开阿尔及利亚。
如今,国际社会对它们所进行的“战争”的性质也存在类似的误解。没有哪个世界级恐怖组织只有一个首脑。从基地组织仍然存在这一事实看,它根本就是一个九头蛇怪,旧头被斩立刻可以生出新头。试图用西方商品来争取赢得“民心”只能腐化通过这些干预措施扶植的政府,让它们信誉扫地。越南就是明证,如今伊拉克和阿富汗也在走这条路。
我们正逐渐但又不可避免地被迫意识到,从很大程度上说,与我们战斗的人民将不得不接收我们留下的焦土。毕竟,他们战斗是为了争取人民以自己的方式(不当)管理自己的事务的权利。自治政府总是比好政府更好,这是法国大革命留给我们的遗毒。


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Partha Sarkar
“So, if massive use of force fails, how is a big country, believing that its interests or moral duty compel it to intervene in the affairs of a small one, to do so successfully?”
This statement represents the fundamental misunderstanding that most learned foreign policy and international relations experts have. USA and NATO affiliated countries and their people think of primary collective identity in terms of “Nationalism” or belonging to a Nation. Whereas strangely enough, for a lot of different parts of the world, this same primary collective identity is not offered through belonging to a Geographical territory such as a Nation but more on belonging to a Religion or Ethnicity.
Thus the same war even if fought Guerrilla style would have some factions of the populace considering it as an attack on an ethnicity or religion and would have repercussions outside of that country. However such an approach would have lesser collateral damage because the other alternative of conducting full scale war will leave the region in a state where it has to build a governance structure from scratch. Thus any political entity vying for power will pander to such public sentiment and use that as a device for power grab. “Winning the hearts approach” which is the second half of the Guerrilla strategy requires very clear understanding and long term foreign policy planning from the ruling governments. However most of these political entities have already shown their enormous inaptitude in such matters.
Stefan S
The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have cost America more than $1.3 trillion so far. A trillion is 1000 billions, or a million millions.
If America had concentrated on energy independence immediately after 9/11, she could have spent this money instead building more than 600,000 1.5 megawatt wind turbines (these cost about $2 million each). That would have averaged 12,000 wind turbines for each of her 50 states. A wind turbine produces enough electricity to supply about 1000 households. So America could have provided new electrical generation for about 12 million households, perhaps 1/6th of her population, without future fuel costs.
Instead of ignoring her puny antagonists and accelerating ahead in the cultural competition by creating thousands of new jobs in a new enterprise sector, America declared war on these little people, succeeding only in making more of them her enemy while greatly wasting lives, national consciousness, and time.
Is it any wonder her economy collapsed in 2008, resulting in a sudden loss of about $13 trillion in private wealth? Worse than a failure of arithmetic, this was due to a failure of imagination.
Zsolt Hermann
There is simply no solution for today's geopolitical problems with conventional means, let it be direct killing, drone killing, or by "winning the minds and hearts" as it is done today.
In this polarized, fragmented world the globe is full of flash points where there is simply no reasonable solution that would satisfy all those involved, any solution would simply push aside, sweep under the carpet the simmering hate and discontent that would break out with 100% certainty later.
We can look at the Middle East, the Far East, India and Pakistan, major parts of Africa, even Europe where the wounds and hard feelings of repeated wars and changing borders are still very much alive. And new antagonism, conflict is born each day.
There is only one solution.
People can only start accepting each other above the unsolvable present conflicts, arguments if these conflicts arguments become meaningless, irrelevant. This can only happen when we all understand that we live in such a global, interconnected and interdependent world where each element fully depends on the other for its survival, where each individual and nation is simply like a cell, organ in a single living body, or as a cogwheel in a machine that can only work if all the cogwheels function optimally.
This is not a utopia, we already have ample amount of evidence from quantum physics to biology, from economics to sociology, from politics to psychology to confirm that today's human network and the natural environment around is simply an interconnected ecosystem, a living system that is fully interdependent and which needs all of its part, nothing is obsolete or coincidental.
On the other hand the daily events of the global economic crisis and the near war situations at multiple locations show us that the present polarized, fragmented, self centered thinking takes us to the brink of self destruction.
We are at crossroads and we have to make a decision.
It is not about big countries, or small countries, big wars or small wars. It is about the survival of humanity as we know it.
Norm Bennett
Thank you Zsolt for your comment as it resonates in my own feelings.
We humans always seem to go to extremes until we bounce off of one end and start to move towards the other end. In our world now it feels like we have moved completely to the hate end. I hope we now feel in our hearts that we must start to move towards the other end, towards Love.
Science in recent years has found that bacteria and cancer cells have a communication network for the good of all the group. In cancer cells, they are not individual cells gone rampant and destroying everything around them but actual are a society. When medicine sends in the magic bullet of chemo therapy a few cancer cells recognize the threat and send a message to all cancer cells to go dormant. When the chemo has left the system another group of cells send a signal out to awaken thus mitigating the chemo's affect. Why would humans be any different? I truly hope that some of human society is sending out the signal to move from the state of hate before we destroy ourselves. If we can reach a feeling of how inter connected our society is and that we are dependent on each individual, group and nation for the good of all of us we will move to the other side away from hate.