MELBOURNE – Como los titulares diarios se centran en la guerra, el terrorismo y los abusos de gobiernos represivos y en dirigentes religiosos que se lamentan de la decadencia de las normas de comportamiento público y privado, resulta fácil tener la impresión de que estamos presenciando un desplome moral, pero creo que tenemos motivos para ser optimistas sobre el futuro.
Hace treinta años escribí un libro titulado The Expanding Circle (“El círculo en expansión”), en el que afirmé que, históricamente, el círculo de seres a los que aplicamos la consideración moral se ha ampliado, primero de la tribu a la nación, después a la raza o al grupo étnico, luego a todos los seres humanos y, por último, a todos los animales no humanos. No cabe duda de que se trata de un progreso moral.
Podríamos pensar que la evolución produce la selección de personas que sólo piensan en sus propios intereses y en los de sus allegados, porque los genes correspondientes a esos rasgos tendrían más probabilidades de extenderse, pero, como sostuve entonces, el desarrollo de la razón podría orientarnos en una dirección diferente.
Por una parte, tener la capacidad de razonar confiere una evidente ventaja evolutiva, porque hace posible resolver problemas y hacer planes para evitar peligros, con lo que aumentan las perspectivas de supervivencia. Por otra parte, la razón es, sin embargo, más que un instrumento neutro para la resolución de problemas. Es más que nada como una escalera mecánica: una vez que subimos a ella, podemos llegar a alturas que nunca esperábamos alcanzar. En particular, la razón nos permite ver que otros, que antes estaban fuera de los límites de nuestra concepción moral, son como nosotros en aspectos importantes. Así, pues, excluirlos de la esfera de los seres a los que debemos consideración moral puede parece arbitrario o simplemente injusto.
El reciente libro de Steven Pinker The Better Angels of Our Nature respalda con fuerza esa opinión. Pinker, profesor de Psicología en la Universidad de Harvard, parte de investigaciones recientes de historia, psicología, ciencia del conocimiento, economía y sociología para sostener que nuestra época es menos violenta, menos cruel y más pacífica que ningún período anterior de la existencia humana.
La disminución de la violencia es aplicable a las familias, a las barriadas, a las tribus y a los Estados. Esencialmente, los seres humanos que viven actualmente tienen menos probabilidades de padecer una muerte violenta o sufrir violencia o crueldad a manos de otros, que sus predecesores de cualquier siglo.
Muchos pondrán en duda esta afirmación. Algunos tienen una opinión halagüeña de las vidas más sencillas y supuestamente más plácidas de los cazadores-recolectores tribales en comparación con la nuestra, pero el examen de los esqueletos encontrados en emplazamientos arqueológicos indica que nada menos que el 15 por ciento de los seres humanos prehistóricos padecieron una muerte violenta a manos de otra persona. (En comparación, en la primera mitad del siglo XX, las dos guerras mundiales causaron una tasa de muerte en Europa de no más del tres por ciento.)
Incluso los pueblos tribales ensalzados por los antropólogos como “suaves” –por ejemplo, los semai de Malasia, los kung del Kalahari y los inuit del Ártico central- resultan tener tasas de asesinatos comparables, en relación con la población, a las de Detroit, que tiene una de las más elevadas de los Estados Unidos. En Europa, la posibilidad de resultar asesinado son actualmente diez –y en algunos países cincuenta– veces menores de lo que habrían sido, si hubiéramos vivido hace 500 años.
Pinker acepta que la razón es un importante factor subyacente a las tendencias que describe. Para apoyar esa afirmación, cita el “efecto Flynn”: el notable descubrimiento del filósofo James Flynn de que desde que se hicieron las primeras pruebas de cociente intelectual los resultados han aumentado considerablemente. El cociente intelectual medio es, por definición, 100, pero, para lograr ese resultado, hay que normalizar los resultados en bruto. Si un adolescente medio de hoy hiciera la prueba del cociente intelectual en 1910, obtendría un resultado de 130, que sería mejor que el del 98 por ciento de los que la hicieran con él.
No es fácil atribuir ese aumento a la mejora de la educación, porque los aspectos de las pruebas en los que los resultados han aumentado más no requieren un buen vocabulario ni capacidad matemática siquiera, sino capacidad de evaluación mediante el razonamiento abstracto.
Una teoría es la de que hemos mejorado en las pruebas de cociente intelectual porque vivimos en un medio con mayor abundancia de símbolos. El propio Flynn cree que la difusión del modo de razonamiento científico ha desempeñado un papel.
Pinker sostiene que una mayor capacidad para razonar nos capacita para distanciarnos de nuestra experiencia inmediata y de nuestra perspectiva personal o limitada y formular nuestras ideas en términos más abstractos y universales, lo que, a su vez, propicia mejores compromisos morales, incluida la evitación de la violencia. Esa clase de capacidad razonadora es precisamente la que mejoró durante el siglo XX.
Así, pues, hay razones para creer que nuestras mejoradas capacidades de razonamiento nos han permitido reducir la influencia de los elementos más impulsivos de nuestra naturaleza que propician la violencia. Tal vez a eso se deba la importante reducción de muertes infligidas por la guerra desde 1945 y que se ha intensificado aún más a lo largo de los veinte últimos años. En ese caso, no se podría negar que seguimos afrontando problemas graves, incluida, naturalmente, la amenaza del catastrófico cambio climático, pero, aun así, habría razón para abrigar la esperanza de un progreso moral.
Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano.


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Sergio Mayorga
1. Even though reason makes it possible to solve problems and to plan to avoid dangers, it is a fact that stupid people reproduce at far higher rates. I witness this starkly as I live in a developing country.
2. Humans may have been getting smarter since 1910. This trend has surely stopped since the surge of Facebook, and is in reverse now. More and more people trifle away their time and their talent perusing banalities and making meta-meta-...-meta-comments.
Peter Singer @PeterSinger
Correction by the author:
The column states that the Semai people of Malaysia have a murder rate comparable, in proportion to population, to that of Detroit.
I have since been contacted by Professor Robert Dentan, an anthropologist who has carried out extensive research on the Semai, and whose information was used by Bruce Knauft in an article that in turn is referenced in Steven Pinker's book. On the basis of the information supplied by Professor Dentan, and after consulting Professor Knauft, I withdraw the comment about the Semai. The evidence of homicide among the Semai is anecdotal and insufficient to support the conclusion that they have a murder rate comparable to that of Detroit, or anywhere else, for that matter.
Nijaz Deleut Kemo
Yes, if you are representative of 1% of the worlds population, for sure you are living - getting better. But, what if you do represent 99% of the population (cca. 7 billion). Therefore, OCCUPY MOVEMENT in Spain, U.S.A. and around the globe have made good point, and answered on your wrong thesis, my dear prof. Singer. After all, long time ago Marx said:"The task is not just to understand the world (i.e. neo-colonialism/imperialism) but to change it", and John Cage said:"We can't change our minds (the collective consciousness) without changing the world." So, two dangerous developments in the world still overshadow everything else: first, there are real threats to "Getting Better" for homo sapiens - since 1945 we do have nuclear weapons, and second is, of course, environmental catastrophe (lost habitats, species, natural resources, all since 1850). Simply, our question is not "Are Humans Getting Better?" Why? We do know that science is all about establishing cause and effect. This is why there is a "scientific method" at all. Because it is so easy to fool ourselves (that we are getting better) regarding what causes what to happen in the real world today (i.e. unemployment rate in the Mediterranean countries - cradle of the civilization). Therefore, many problems in the physical world are not amenable to laboratory investigation, or theoretical lamenting. Global warming is only one of them, my dear professor.
Nijaz Deleut Kemo
NO, MY DEAR PROF. DO NOT USE STATISTIC, OR CONSIDER THIS ONE ONLY ON POPULATION RISE:
1850................................................ 1 BILLION
2012................................................ 7 BILLION
NEXT ONE ON GEOGRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
ASIA, AFRICA................................20TH CENTURY AND TODAY (BEGINNING OF 21ST), AND
EUROPE...........................................19/20TH CENTURY.
SO MY QUESTION IS: HOW MUCH INDIVIDUALS (PER CAPITA) SUFFERED ON A 1% RATE FOR BOTH PERIODS AND TERRITORIES.
MY ANSWER IS THAT OUR WAY OF LIVING AND WORKING; I.E. BARBARIANISM, SLAVERY AND COLONIALISM DID THAT. NEO-COLONIALISM IS DOING THAT ONLY 40 YEARS, SO FAR. SO, WE MUST WAIT AND SEE WHAT WILL BE, OUR NEW-NEXT STATISTIC !?
john scanlon
It is not clear you if stipulate improved individual reasoning for such causes or improved cultural reasoning. The article seems like a case for the former as having a major bearing of our improved outcomes as opposed to the wonderous cultural evolution over time being inherent now in both our institutions (e.g. law & order, concepts of democracy, education), or just plan society & language. It is our advancing cultural progress and conventions which may in large lead to many of our progressive outcomes. Where is the split if any on culture vs individual leading to such outcomes ? Can we go in different directions ('backwards', 'sideways'), and what cultural pressures would lead us there ? Enjoyed the article - thank you.
PROCYON MUKHERJEE
Kropotkin’s book ‘Mutual Aid’ had huge number of evidences that proved the theory that societies from ancient times including in the case of animals, both for the wild and the timid to have prospered with one helping the other to face adversities; it is not reason alone that has mattered for people to come together for survival, it is something beyond reason. The survival of the fittest theory and natural selection on the other hand stands the testimony of times that genetic patterns have helped the stronger, farer or more beautiful and attractive to progress than the less endowed ones; truth perhaps lies somewhere in between.
In today’s world with so many stimuli around us, we have the challenge of rational attention to these stimuli and perhaps due to paucity of time and interest to so many we take the route of rational inattention. This has an impact to our decision making every day. The ability to reason may have improved, but we have other influences that could make us vulnerable and we must be aware that a plethora of information that we are fed with, only a small percentage would end up with a testing of hypothesis with a high probability of success.
In a world that has to survive and sustain millions of products, services and ideas to which consumers must be attracted to, it is again more than what reason can deliver.
Whether we are getting better of or worse, again time will tell as yardsticks would keep changing.
Procyon Mukherjee
Zsolt Hermann
Interesting article.
And I share the writer's optimism about the future, as we truly have a cognitive function that we can use for our benefit.
But we are not doing this consciously yet.
We can consider human evolution as the development of the Ego.
We were separated from other animals with the appearance of our Ego, that introduced self awareness, feeling of unique individuality, and the desire for self fulfillment, even at the expense of others beyond necessities.
This "maximum pleasure/minimum pain" software drove us up to the present moment, where this egoistic development seems to have run into a dead end.
We evolved into a closed, integral, totally interconnected and interdependent human system, where our egoistic software turned us into cancer cells, suddenly destroying ourselves and the environment.
We cannot measure this through murder statistics, we need to look at the total picture with the breakdown of almost all human institutions starting from the family unit up to national and international levels.
And outside of human society we have devoured our environment and now threaten to cause irreversible damage that can seriously threaten even our survival.
We have a very unique cognitive function, our ability of self analysis and self critique, but we have never used it before. So far we followed our inherent egoistic desires and instincts automatically like robots.
Today we are at crossroads. The deepening and unsolvable global crisis, and environmental crisis that is the result of our unsustainable, excessive, exploitative lifestyle is pushing us into a corner, where we cannot avoid self scrutiny any longer.
Now we can activate our mental powers, our human cognition in order to analyze our new global human system, how we relate to nature's laws around us always thriving for homeostasis, and then work out how we, the only truly active element in this system can contribute in such way that we return the whole system into harmony.
The only question today is if we can do this proactively, wisely, using our mental powers and free choice before we are forced by suffering, or we wait like we have done so far, until the present state becomes so unbearable that we have to change against our will.
John-Albert Eadie @bothandeach
These are MY ideas, Mr. Singer %^) What I maintain, however is that the "brain software" must have a great leap forward right now, or we won't avoid incineration from climate change.
Josué Machaca
Mr. Singer, you said that the world is better now becouse the percentage of deaths decreased. But you did not consider that there are more people in the world. For example, you said "in the first half of the twentieth century, the two world wars caused a death rate in Europe of not much more than 3%". Everybody knows that the two world wars caused millions of deaths. In the past wars caused thousends of deaths only. So, ¿Does the world get better? Your points of view are well, but when we talk of deaths we consider amount, not percentage. (Sorry for the vocabulary, I speak Spanish)
Boris Krumov @SeoKungFu
Hopefully, evolution is not just the physical aspect of itself.
Making your way around with claws, jaws and biceps might be working for some, but in the longer term choosing the opposite approach is a show of a greater force, the one that really dominates - the force of good.
Yes, humans are becoming better, but this is a slow and hard process.
Thanks for the great article !
Makes you not lose hope :)
"Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth."